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Improving
Performance
The
Case of the Zimbabwean Civil Service
Copyright © 2007 Maxwell Musingafi
Used with permission of the author:
Author:
Maxwell Musingafi
Zimbabwe Open University
mmusingafi@cooltoad.com,
mmusingafi@webmail.co.za
10 December 2007
Abstract
Most African
governments have attempted improving performance of their civil
service through reforms. All ended up failing meeting the desired
results because of a combination of internal and external factors.
The Zimbabwean experience is a typical African reforms effort that
failed because of both internal weaknesses and external pressures.
Contents
1.
Introduction
2.
Management and Performance: Historical Overview
3. Improving Performance: The African Experience
4.
Improving Performance: The Zimbabwean Experience
4.1
Blackenisation
4.2
Performance Management
4.2.1
The Concept of Performance Management
4.2.2
Weaknesses of The Concept of Performance Management
4.3
The Zimbabwean Experience with Performance Management
4.3.1
Phase One
4.3.2 Phase Two
5.
Lessons Learnt from the Zimbabwean Experience
References
1.
Introduction
Since
Independence in 1980, Zimbabwe has tried a number of change
programmes to improve performance among civil servants. Some of
the major reform and revitalization of the public service
programmes attempted by the government are:
-
Blackenisation
-
Performance
Management
-
Professionalisation
Yet,
as shown by Bologun (2003) on African attempts at reforms, there
is no evidence that the efforts had any positive significant
impact on performance. The Public Service in Zimbabwe has been
associated with poor management, corruption, nepotism, poor
communication, and rude, frustrated and unsympathetic Civil
Servants (Public Service Performance Management Training Manual,
1998). A Civil Servant has been known to be slow in responding to
demands and in decision-making.
This
paper looks at the theoretical frameworks and the implementation
of these reform programmes in the Zimbabwean civil service.
The first part is a survey of the evolution of the
management thought and productivity. The second part looks at
performance reforms in the African civil service since
independence. The third part is about attempts at improving
performance in the Zimbabwean civil service. Finally the paper
looks at some of the lessons learnt from the Zimbabwean
experiences with attempts on improving performance since 1980.
2.
Management and Performance: Historical Overview
Management
is matching organizational resources to meet organizational goals
(IPMZ, 1996). Without a proper match organizational goals remain a
dream. Therefore, proper match is a prerequisite to performance.
The
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1995) sees performance as
working. To perform is to work. Performance is therefore action
oriented and behavioural in character.
Classical
management theorists defined management as a process that involves
planning, organizing, leading and controlling (Smit and Cronje,
1996). Thus, from a general point of view Performance Management
can simply be seen as putting the management theory into practice.
Practitioners,
managers and theorists agree that implementation, or actioning
management plans is of great importance to organizational success.
Even the earliest theorists and practitioners devoted much of
their time on how to make people in organizations perform and
become more productive. Classical management theorists, especially
scientific management theorists, may seem more concerned with the
task performance issue than the human side of the process, but
still, they are talking of how to mobilize people in organizations
to put other resources in motion for the achievement of
organizational goals.
Performance
Management is a function of both General Management and Human
Resources Management. It is therefore important to trace its
evolution within these broad settings.
Problems
with the performance of people at work began just before the
Industrial Revolution in the early 1800s, when cottage industries
became so large that owners were obliged to employ ‘strange’
people in addition to family members (Gerber, et al: 1995:31). The
burning issue, then, which is still a burning issue today, was how
to take care of this ‘stranger’ so that he or she performs his
or her best for the optimal achievement of organizational goals.
In
the early days the strangers were seen as cogs to be thrown away
after use. Human emotions and needs were not seen as important in
the employment relationship. The dominant approach to People and
Performance Management was the commodity approach that is
described by Litwack (1962) as quoted by Gerber, etal (Ibid) as
follows:
Employees represented a factor of
production to be performed as cheaply as possible and discarded
when no longer useful. The human factor was at best irrelevant in
employment decisions. Some employers, for example, viewed
employees’ desire for education as harmful, spoiling these
people for the realities of hard
work.
People
were just like any other resource, and therefore there was no need
for treating them differently.
But,
as has always been the case with human life, there was no
consensus about the best philosophy on People and Performance
Management. This led to the emergence of the Paternalistic Social
Welfare Approach based on strong moral grounds in the late
1800’s. It was Robert Owen who emphasized the need for better
labour relations, improvement in service conditions and
cooperative labour movement on humanitarian grounds (Ahuja: 1998:
3).
Smit
and Cronje (1996) identify Taylor as the father of Scientific
Management Theory. From his studies, Taylor concluded that workers
could only be highly productive if they were paid according to
their performance or contribution to the organization. For him
performance could be scientifically determined and measured if
work was put into its simplest form through division of work. He
believed that workers did not like work. They only worked because
they wanted money. Otherwise they would not work. As such force
should be used to make them work to their optimum level. His
solution was to pay them according to their level of performance.
Taylor was therefore the first person to talk about
performance-based pay. The main weakness of his theory was that he
sidelined human feelings, as he believed that workers were not
different from any other organizational resources. He implied that
there was only one best way of managing people at work. Research
has shown that what makes people work is situational. It is not
only money that makes people work (IPMZ, 1996).
Weber,
as explained in Smit and Cronje (1996), came up with the
Bureaucratic Organization Philosophy. He believed that for workers
to perform up to optimum level there should be unity of command,
well defined span of control, clear chain of command, among other
things. He thus came up with tall organizations, which lead to
slow decision making. Workers were made powerless as they had to
obey authority. The school of thought suffered the very same
weaknesses as the Scientific Management approach; coming up with
one best way of managing people at work, disregarding workers’
feelings, putting too much power in the hands of management. It,
however, ensured that there was someone accountable and
responsible.
The
Hawthorne Studies, as outlined in Smit and Cronje (1996), showed
that human beings are socializing animals. They perform better in
group settings. They want to be heard and contribute to their
fate. People value teamwork and as such have an inherent need of
belonging. Given the opportunity they like and enjoy work. The
studies thus came up with the Human Relations Theories, which also
suffered from the one best way syndrome.
Systems
and Contingency approaches to Management acknowledged the
importance of all these other schools of thought, but argued that
everything has to be put into its proper setting. Things don’t
just happen in isolation. They are contextual. It is, therefore,
not encouraged to prescribe one best way for every situation.
Total Quality Management, Reengineering and many of the current
management schools of thought are based on contingency and systems
approaches. Everything has to be viewed in its total setting.
Thus,
people have been worried about performance management since the
beginning of organizations. However, the Concept of Performance
Management is of recent origin, as far back as the late 1980s
(Armstrong, 1996). It originated from other related concepts like
Merit Rating, Performance Appraisal, Management by Objectives and
so forth (Public service Training Manual, 1998). Thus, it is not
surprising that some scholars do not distinguish it from these
related disciplines. Though wider and more flexible, most of its
characteristics are the same as those of its predecessors.
3.
Improving Performance: The African Experience
Somavia,
the director of ILO (2004), as quoted by Tsiko in The Herald of 18
February 2004, reports that every year some 23 000 qualified
academic professionals emigrate from Africa in search of better
working conditions and living standards. He further says this
trend can be stopped “if policymakers stop treating employment
as an afterthought and place decent work at the heart of
macro-economic and social policies”. His argument is that people
should be allowed and given the opportunity to perform. Otherwise
they get frustrated and leave. The implication is that, in Africa,
before even talking of the Concept of Performance Management,
people are not allowed to perform. As a result it is difficult to
visualize the implementation of Performance Management.
Many
studies were, and are still being done on attempts at reforming
the Public Service and making it performance oriented in Africa.
Some of these notable studies are:
- The
Ndengwa Commission Study (1971)
- The
Udoji Commission Study (1972)
Before
looking at the details of these commissions and their subsequent
reports it is important to comment on the general developments in
Africa since independence. The thorny issue was and is still,
improving performance. But, as put forward by Bologun (2003), all
the efforts at performance improvement failed mainly because they
“under-rated the significance of politics [at both the national
and international level] in the process.”
General
terms of reference of the above Commissions were job evaluation
and grading, salaries and conditions of service, staff training,
accounting and budgeting systems, plan formulation and
implementation machinery, etc. Both Commissions found the Civil
Service in the two countries (Kenya and Nigeria) wanting in terms
of performance and productivity.
The
Ndengwa Commission noted that the structure of the Kenya Civil
Service constituted a serious barrier to efficient and effective
performance. By failing to focus on objectives and results, the
structure encouraged the following negative tendencies, among
others:
- Defective
utilization of hours
- Little
or no delegation of operational responsibilities
- Misunderstanding
by some junior officers of their job purpose
- Poor
communication and lack of coordination
- Over
centralization of authority at the Ministry headquarters in
Nairobi
This
was in 1971, and the situation has not registered any significant
changes by 2003. (Bologun, 2003).
The
Nigerian Udoji Review Commission Report (1972) proposed the
introduction of a “unified” grading and salary system, the
abolition of permanent secretaries and their replacement with
director generals or general managers, programme and performance
budgeting, Management by Objectives, Organization Development,
planned and preventive management, and so forth. Nothing of
significance was practically done.
According
to Bologun (2003), failure to implement the changes in the above
cases and many others in Africa were and are still mainly due to:
- Dependence
of reform initiatives on external push and inspiration
- The
disconnection between the reform programmes’ performance,
productivity, and efficiency thrusts, on the one hand, and the
leaders’ preoccupation with the capture and retention of
power and authority, on the other
- Failure
to construct a performance and productivity management
infrastructure to support and sustain reform efforts
For
Adedeji (1972) reform measures in the 1970s were not locally
inspired, but a reflection of the international demonstration
effect of the Fulton Report, a wish to be seen copying “best
practices”. Britain had embarked on a comprehensive reform of
its civil service signaling that the administrative systems it
left in its former colonies were not perfect.
Commenting
on the failure of improvement efforts in the African Civil
Service, Bologun (2003) states “Africa’s diversity poses a
tremendous challenge to the unity of purpose required in embarking
on and sustaining, a comprehensive and impact-oriented programme
of reform”. It is also important to note that the problem is not
with diversity per se but with what the various actors make with
it in the public realm. Individuals with their own private agendas
have capitalized on ethnic, religious, linguistic, cadre, gender
differences, and so forth, to promote intra-organization tension.
Consequently in place of the cooperative action for things to be
done there is interpersonal and intergroup resistance and
resentment.
4.
Improving Performance: The Zimbabwean Experience
4.1
Blackenisation
The
euphoria of independence in Zimbabwe in 1980 brought with it many
expectations among the blacks. It also instilled a lot of fear
among the whites in the country. A combination of these two
extremes resulted in radical changes in terms of personnel in the
civil service.
Though the new nationalist government preached
reconciliation, there was also high emotional talk on such things
as black empowerment, affirmative action, equal rights,
indeginization, socialism, Marxism-Leninism, and so forth. Most of
the highly experienced white civil servants started deserting
their posts for South Africa, Australia, Great Britain, and many
other western countries. They were not sure of their future in the
civil service. Some did not want to work under the black
nationalists. This “great trek” made it easier for the new
government to blackenise the civil service! But, the “great
trek”, also meant inexperienced and inefficient personnel in the
public service!
The
above change process was haphazard. Most blacks found themselves
in professional and management posts with neither appropriate
qualifications nor experience. Some boasted of their war
credentials and as such a high office in the civil service was
nothing but a well-deserved right. Some got into these offices
just because they were related to a powerful political figure.
Some, especially women, became officers because they were very
generous with their thighs. Plus many more dubious reasons!
Such a combination of personnel was a sure recipe for
failure. As a result performance and productivity suffered.
Moyo
(1997) observes that the early eighties saw a phenomenal growth in
the provision of public services throughout the country. For
example, the number of children served by the education system
increased from approximately 885 801 in 1980 to approximately 3
245 140 in 1996. This meant the civil service had to grow as well.
It increased from 10 570 established posts in 1980 (of which only
31% were held by blacks - almost exclusively in lower cadres) to a
high of 193 000 in 1994.
Blackenisation
of the civil service in Zimbabwe was meant to improve performance.
Though most of the white civil servants voluntarily left their
jobs for reasons given above, it was good riddance for the new
nationalist government. The new government did not trust them
anywhere, as they could have sabotaged government rebuilding and
developmental efforts; it was thought.
But, because of the manner in which Blackenisation was
administered, the change effort failed to improve performance in
the civil service. Rather it destroyed the existing formal systems
such that when Performance Management came in the 1990s people had
already started talking of the need for making the civil service
more formal and professional.
In
fact the problems started to be seen in the mid 1980s; hence the
establishment of the 1987 Public Service Review Commission. In
1989 (Moyo, 1997) the Commission reported the following findings
on the civil service:
- Oversized
and cumbersome;
- Managed
largely by inexperienced staff;
- Characterized
by overlap and duplication of functions;
- Secretive,
lacking transparency and with poor communication of decisions
and problems;
- Inaccessible
to the general public;
- Suffering
from over-complicated rules and elaborate procedures.
Blackenisation
per se was not enough. As a result, with the coming of the
Economic Structural Adjustment Programme in the 1990s, the
government decided to reform the civil service with the following
objectives:
- To
improve the mechanisms for policy formulation and
coordination;
- To
introduce performance management;
- To
improve conditions of service;
- To
improve resource management;
- To
upgrade basic management systems through training;
- To
reduce the size of the civil service;
- To
set up and strengthen monitoring and support systems (Moyo,
1997)
4.2
Performance Management
The
first phase of the Zimbabwean Civil Service Performance Management
Programme was introduced in 1992. Before getting into the details
of the programme, the Concept of Performance Management and its
weaknesses must be discussed first.
4.2.1
The Concept of Performance Management
The
Concept of Performance Management is of recent origin. It is yet
to be precisely defined. Stringer (2005) notes, “The current
understanding of performance management practices and the
consequences of different management and control designs is
limited.”
As such there is no consensus on an appropriate strategy
for initiating and sustaining it.
According
to the Public Service Performance Management Training Manual
(1998), some authorities and organizations equate it to Management
by Objectives, others to just another name for Performance
Appraisal, some to an annual event associated with training and
development, and yet others to a process relating to performance
related pay, and so forth. These are, however, narrow definitions
of Performance Management as the Manual correctly observes. The
Manual acknowledges that Performance Management is a
“holistic process, which can embrace all these elements -
and more”. It may be difficult to come up with a universally
agreed definition of the Concept, but as put forward by Mandishona,
etal (2003), such a definition should meet the following criteria:
- Objective
setting
- Performance
monitoring
- Support/Coaching
- Appraisal/Review
- Development
plans
- Rewards
and sanctions
- Dealing
with underperformance
- Linkage between individual and
organizational goals
Though
difficult, it is important that a definition has to be attempted
so that there is some communication and shared meaning of the
Concept. Bologun (2003) does not directly define the Concept but
says it is based on the premise that “the clarification of
corporate objectives, the institution of measures in pursuit of
the objectives, and the empowerment of managers are all it takes
to energize organizations and orient them towards incremental
productivity, cost reduction and customer satisfaction”. The
Concept is defined by the Public Service (1998) as an on-going
management control process in which the supervisor and the
subordinate sit face-to-face at regular intervals in a given year
to review progress towards agreed goals for the benefit of both
the employee and the Public Service. Such goals are derived from
the overall organizational goals and set by the subordinate in
consultation with the supervisor. It is based on the principle of
management by agreement rather than management by command
(Armstrong, 1996). Its emphasis is on development and the
initiation of self managed learning plans and the integration of
the individual and corporate objectives. Performance Management
“is not a mere routine activity, but a dynamic, momentum geared,
trouble shooting, and impact oriented process”
(Bologun, 2003).
Armstrong
(1996) believes that Performance Management is a means of getting
better results from the organization, teams and individuals by
understanding and managing performance within an agreed framework
of planned goals, standards and competence requirements. It is
concerned with the interrelated processes of work, management,
development and reward. He agrees with Fletcher and Williams
(1992) who feel that it is not a package solution, but something
that has to be developed specifically and individually for the
particular organization. Performance Management programmes should
therefore be adapted to the demands of the target organizations
within which they have to be implemented. Otherwise they fail to
bring in the desired results. Unlike appraisal schemes that are
retrospective any Performance Management programme focuses on
future performance planning and improvement (Armstrong, Ibid).
As
already noted above, Performance Management is a process, not an
event. Neither is it a series of unrelated events. As put forward
by Mandishona, etal (2003), it is cyclical and done in steps as
follows:
- Plan
- Act
- Measure
- Review
The
process is repeated again and again.
The
importance of Performance Management is echoed in Mandishona’s
(2003) argument that everything being equal, an organization’s
success depends on how people are viewed and treated, and how they
in turn view the organization and behave towards it. Performance
Management is thus of great importance to organizational success.
It is generally believed that Performance Management optimizes the
contribution of people to the organization while at the same time
meeting the individual needs of employees. The Concept thus argues
that individuals can contribute more if they have more expertise,
more powerful tools, access to knowledge, and if a common area is
found between their individual goals and those of the
organization. If people are going to be motivated to perform,
there must be some clear benefit for them in the first place,
before they respond positively to calls for more and better
productivity (Mandishona, etal, 2003).
According
to the Public Service Manual (1998) benefits of Performance
Management to the Public Service are as follows:
- Clear
work goals and responsibilities
- Greater
commitment and motivation of staff at all levels
- A
reliable method of measuring performance
- Focus
on results
- Elimination
of unnecessary activity
- Improved
retention and attraction of staff
- Improved
communications
- Greater
managerial motivation through goal setting
- More
effective development of people
- Can
be linked with a variety of Human Resource Systems like
Performance Appraisal, Performance Related Pay, training and
development, transfer, promotion, demotion, etc.
However,
it is important to note that the Concept has its own problems as
well. As such, it has to be handled with care for organizations to
meet the desired results.
4.2.2
Weaknesses of The Concept of Performance Management
Performance
Management is currently believed to be “the tool which managers
use to achieve organizational goals through other people” (Mandishona,
etal, 2003). Reading between the lines of this statement one is
justified to feel that there is an element of manipulation and
exploitation. Though the Concept claims equality between
subordinates and their seniors, it becomes practically difficult
when managers achieve goals through other people. The relationship
is that of unequals, if not paternalistic.
The
writers quoted above, all agree that there is no universally
agreed definition of the Concept. This means that the Concept is
subject to individual interpretation and subjectivity. In an
African context where, “instead of applying a holistic and
organic approach to Public Service reform, governments have
settled for partial and mechanistic solutions” (Bologun, 2003),
the Concept can be maimed for personal gains.
Critics
of Performance Management are further worried about the emphasis
on results, the individual worker, SMART objectives, the seeming
contradictory emphasis on individual performance and teamwork, and
the authenticity of involving subordinates in goal setting among
other things. Daniels and Daniels (1989) summarize the worries of
the critics. Some of the arguments are summarized below.
The
Traditional Performance Management model puts a lot of emphasis on
results at the expense of inputs and processes. It
“makes sense…set goals, reach goals, and you get what
is desired”, but solely focusing on results neglects
organizational and system issues that need to be in place for the
results to happen. The current management thinking dominated by
the Marketing Concept and Total Quality Management is that inputs
and processes are as good and important as the results or the end
product itself. They can even be more important than the end
product.
Employees
may feel great that they have “input into and ownership of their
objectives and standards of performance”. But still their
involvement does not get them far as they are not involved in the
setting of strategic organizational goals that determine their
personal objectives. Daniels and Daniels (1989) write “If the
overall goals make no sense to the employee, management is only
offering a choice of doing one stupid thing or another stupid
thing”. Employees thus have control over smaller tasks but not
the overall direction or decision. If the decision seems
arbitrary, no amount of choice about tasks will convince an
employee that they are in control, or contributing to a worthwhile
task.
It
is difficult to set meaningful standards of performance that are
measurable and observable. The precise and the more the standard,
the likely it is to seem silly, especially when dealing with the
public. Daniels and Daniels (1989) gave an example of processing
license renewals. The discussion between supervisor and
subordinate may result in the following: “Process license
renewal at an average rate of 20 per hour, with no errors.” But
the supervisor soon realizes that this standard does not account
for customer satisfaction. Further discussion may result in adding
a “no complaints” clause. This complicates the issue. Irate
customers will complain despite the best efforts of the employee
and therefore the subordinate is bound to refuse to have his
evaluation based on things that are uncontrollable. The result is
likely to be a compromise and the standard may now be as follows:
Process
license renewal applications at an average rate of 20 per hour,
with no errors and generate no legitimate customer complaints
regarding rudeness, uncooperativeness or poor service.
Already
there is subjectivity. The supervisor is now required to judge
whether a complaint is “legitimate” or not. The point is the
more quantifiable or measurable a standard is, the less relevant
it becomes, especially when dealing with the public. It is easy to
measure the trivial, but it is very difficult to measure what is
important in an objective way.
Thus,
obviously, there are problems in accepting and implementing
Performance Management. But what model or philosophy does not have
its own peculiar problems or weaknesses? Discussing these problems
or making practitioners aware of them is not meant to discredit
the Concept. Being aware of the weaknesses is a step towards
successfully implementing the Concept. The Concept should not be
taken as a Bible. Neither should it be taken as a rigid “best
way” of dealing with the management of people at work issue.
Acknowledging some of the approach’s problems is the first step
in improvising and improving its application, though, of course,
with some sacrificing of some of its traditional tenets. Daniels
and Daniels (1989) write:
Make
standards measurable, and waste time on the trivial. Make
standards more subjective and you can’t use them for
disciplinary purposes. The more you stress individual
responsibility the more you reduce collective responsibility.
In
conclusion therefore, Performance Management should be seen as a
flexible and dynamic management tool, which, if implemented by
competent managers, distinguishes successful organizations from
failures. It can give organizations their competitive edge,
supporting Mandishona, etal’s (2003) claim that everything being
equal, an organization’s success depends on how people are
viewed and treated, and how they in turn view the organization and
behave towards it.
Lastly,
the philosophical and theoretical arguments may be sound, but what
is happening on the ground? Butterick (1997), as quoted in
Mandishona, etal (2003) observes, “all organizations say that
their most important asset is their people”, but the question
remains, “Do they walk this talk?” Easier said than done!
4.3
The Zimbabwean Experience with Performance Management
4.3.1
Phase One
The
first phase of the Performance Management Programme was introduced
in 1992/3 in selected ministries and among all managerial civil
servants. By the beginning of the second phase in 1997 Moyo claims
it had made the following achievements:
- By
1995 the government had downsized the civil service
establishment by 23 500. No reductions were done in the
education and health ministries. The number of ministries had
been reduced from 26 to 15. The total civil service workforce
was now 169 500 workers.
- Results
oriented performance management was introduced throughout the
civil service, starting in 1994/5 with top managers and
cascading to all civil servants in the second phase in 1997/8.
New performance appraisal forms were introduced in 1995/6 and
modified in 1997. The forms demanded that all supervisors
should provide both positive and negative feedback to their
subordinates.
- Surveys
on civil servants attitudes, knowledge and behaviour to
determine their training needs were done.
- A
job evaluation that reduced the more than 3 000 existing
grades to only 18 grades in 17 categories was carried out.
- All
personnel regulations and guidelines were reviewed and amended
and a Human Resources Manual was prepared.
- A
Directorate of training was established, and a National
Training Policy was articulated.
- Clients’
charters were drafted by each ministry.
- Human
resources information and management information systems were
in the process of being computerized.
According
to Moyo (1997) the following problems, challenges, and constraints
had been well identified and articulated by the end of the first
phase:
- Lack
of effective communication between politicians and
administrators about the reforms. This was evident when in
1996 Cabinet suspended the use of the new performance
appraisal form because they felt that the system was not up to
standard.
- Some
senior civil servants were resisting change. They wanted
appropriate training for everyone before implementation of the
system. They also wanted increased powers over recruitment,
firing and financial management controls so that they could
truly be measured for work under their independent control.
- Human
resources managers at ministerial level required training to
understand their new functions and how to carry them out.
- There
were complaints that some of the reforms had been driven more
by donor concerns than by the government’s perceived needs.
- Lack
of financial resources, skilled personnel in performance
management, brain drain or high staff turnover, inflexible
financial regulations, and so forth.
- Lack
of commitment by recipient ministries, delays by the PSC in
the appointment of the required staff.
As
a result the following recommendations were made for the second
phase:
- Civil
servants pay should match industry market rate.
- A
public awareness campaign through the media, NGO’s and
private sector be mounted to educate the public on its civic
rights vis-à-vis the civil service.
- Inculcate
a more business like and market oriented behaviour within the
civil service.
- The
Ministry of Public Service, Labour, and Social Welfare,
together with the office of the President and Cabinet to
resuscitate the workshop for ministers on the Civil Service
Reform Programme.
- Performance
Management should be institutionalized and cascaded throughout
the civil service through building internal capacity in
ministries and the provision of further guidance as required
by ministries.
- Provision
of an awareness module to encourage acceptance, ownership and
commitment by the recipient ministries.
- The
capacity of National Training Institutions and the Zimbabwe
Institute for Public Administration and Management should be
strengthened so that there is continued support in training
for the Civil Service Reform Programme and hence ensure its
sustainability.
- Qualified
indigenous Zimbabwean experts should be sought out through
competitive tender and used whenever possible.
- Human
resources and institution capacity building in the ministries
and national training institutions to enhance the
institutionalization of performance management into the civil
service work culture.
- Creating
an enabling environment in terms of enhancing the political
will and commitment to the Civil Service Reform Programme, and
assisting in the incorporation of performance management into
the budgetary process of the Ministry of Finance to make it
possible for ministries to budget the cost of introducing
performance management.
- Professionalisation
of the civil service.
4.3.2 Phase Two
Phase
Two began in 1997/8 with every civil servant involved. All civil
servants attended workshops in Performance Management, though in
most cases hurriedly and poorly done. It was therefore difficult
for the average worker to understand the concepts.
An
attempt to meet most of the recommendations made at the end of
Phase One was made. However, the implementation of these
recommendations could not survive the economic turmoil that
followed the land invasions after the National Constitutional
Referendum No Vote of 1999.
An
important aspect of the second phase was Professionalisation of
the civil service. Professionalisation meant that all
administrative and professional offices were to be manned by
professionally qualified personnel. For one to be a substantive
accounting clerk, human resource clerk, or any other related post
one should have at least a diploma in the area. Management posts
were supposed to be manned by those with at least a first degree
or a higher diploma in the area concerned. Those in these offices
without the minimum qualifications were given a grace period of
three years to study for the appropriate qualification.
Major
problems were encountered when young men and women from colleges
joined the civil service and got substantive posts ahead of the
experienced under-qualified personnel. The older experienced
workers were supposed to orient and introduce the younger
professionally qualified but inexperienced officers. Obviously
there was automatic resistance and sabotage. The writer had
experience with some of these under-qualified experienced workers
whom he took for part time private tuition for the Institute of
Personnel Management of Zimbabwe Diploma in Personnel, Training or
Labour Relations. They confessed that they were not happy with the
change processes and as such they were sabotaging its efforts.
This response by the under-qualified experienced workers helped
nothing but destabilizing the whole change process. It weakened
performance and brought in further inefficiencies.
The
Professionalisation process, which should have been completed by
the beginning of Phase Three in 2002/3, is still in progress
because of the economic downturn that began in 2000 and resulted
in rampant brain drain.
The
second phase, though still in progress, was a complete flop
because of the political and economic crisis that began after the
National Constitutional Referendum No Vote of 1999.
Government attention became more focused on political
survival than performance improvement. Western NGOs that supported
the initial stages of the programme withdrew from the country. The
government failed to raise resources, commitment and will to
ensure that the programme survives even after the withdrawal of
the donor community. Though people still talked of Performance
Management, nothing serious was or is in progress.
A
study by Musingafi (2005) on the programme at Gweru Polytechnic, a
government institution of higher learning, established that:
- There
was serious shortage of financial resources and skilled
personnel in performance management in the civil service
- There
was serious brain drain or high staff turnover at Gweru
Polytechnic and the civil service in general
- Relatively
low qualified and inexperienced young men and women
manned Gweru Polytechnic
- Gweru
polytechnic staff understanding of the Concept of Performance
Management was limited.
- Staff
claimed that Performance Management was just a formality; no
one believed in it; hence, there was a lack of commitment from
everyone concerned, including ministers and managers of the
programme
- Generally,
staff believed that the programme was not serving its purpose
- Staff
believed that the programme was not properly implemented
- Civil
servants pay was far below industry market rate
- They
were not happy of what they called insensitive cumbersome
over-complicated rules and procedures, especially with regards
to grievance handling and study leave
- They
complained of poor communication of decisions and problems,
and lack of transparency, especially when it comes to career
progression, promotion, staff development and study leave
The
gains of the late 1990s were thus eroded. Attempts at improving
performance through Performance Management in the Zimbabwean Civil
Service failed in their second phase because of a combination of
both external and internal factors. Dependence of reform
initiatives on external push and inspiration made sure that the
process failed when the external supporters withdrew. The
leaders’ preoccupation with the capture and retention of power
and authority, also meant that the programme could not survive the
2000 and beyond economic turmoil and political mayhem. Today there
is still talk on Performance Management, now in its fourth phase
christened Result Based Management, but there is nothing serious
except confusing people and diverting their attention from the
problems they are experiencing because of the economic turmoil.
5.
Lessons Learnt from the Zimbabwean Experience
Working
in management and working with people are not easy tasks. The
experience with Blackenisation shows that proper planning and
formalizing systems are very important in any reform or change
process. Had the new nationalist government sat down and come up
with a clearly spelt out policy document on Blackenisation, it
could have controlled some of the independence emotions, and
avoided some of the problems it faced in performance management in
the 1980s.
It
should be noted, however, that plans and policy documents on their
own are not solutions. They are just means to an end as
demonstrated in the experiences with the Zimbabwean Civil Service
Performance Management Programme since the 1990s. Well spelt out
plans and policies were developed but the programme did not reach
the desired destination. One of the reasons, as already shown by
Bologun (2003) discussed above, is that the local leaders of such
reforms under-rated the significance of politics, at both the
national and international level, in the process.
When local political leaders sensed serious threat to their
survival in the late 1990s and beyond they forgot about the
importance of improving performance and concentrated on the
struggle for political power. Government energy and resources were
mobilized to beat up people, silence divergent voices, and buy
extra-ordinary war weapons among other controversial things. The
international supporters of the programme also withdrew when
government policies and actions were at loggerheads with what they
believed or wanted in Zimbabwe.
For
any change process to survive resistance top leadership commitment
is a prerequisite. For top leadership to be committed to the
change process, they must understand what it is all about and
agree with its objectives. The above discussion shows that the
political leadership was not very clear of what was happening, and
sometimes suspended some of the activities because they felt the
formalities or processes were not up to standard. Thus
understanding and political will were lacking even without the
disturbances of the 2000s. To them, Performance Management
degenerated into a mere routine activity and became something to
be done just to keep people occupied. But, as put forward by
Bologun, such attitudes are the surest way to failure.
Another
important issue raised by professionals and scholars when the
programme started was consideration of the general environment
within which the programme was going to be implemented. The system
and contingency theories summarized above say management
approaches should be matched to their environmental forces. Simple
imposition is the surest way to failure. Thus the programme should
have been adapted to the situational dictates of the environment,
especially after 1999.
To
round up this discussion, the following recommendations are
adapted from Musingafi’s (2005) study at Gweru Polytechnic:
- The
Public Service Commission should ensure that it has enough
resources (human, financial, equipment, etc) before embarking
on any new programme.
- The
Public Service Commission should get people at the top
(politicians and senior civil servants) committed to the
Programme for it to be well implemented. This means that
people at the top have to understand and actively support the
Programme before it is taken to the workers.
Some serious senior management training and motivation
programmes have to be embarked on before any form of
implementation is even thought of.
- Both
the Commission and its implementing agencies like Gweru
Polytechnic should ensure that all members are continuously
trained in Performance Management. Such training should not be
haphazard, but should be a well-planned and implemented formal
training programme. Members should be trained in Performance
Management at least once every year, especially at the
beginning of the year when they come up with their performance
targets.
- The
Commission should abide by the dictates of the Programme for
it to be taken seriously. In this study respondents said human
resources treatment was not based on their performance as per
the dictates of the Programme.
References
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Management in Africa. London: Longman
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Management-Why Doesn’t it work Fourth Edition. Amazon Books
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Management. 6th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill
International
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Harare: IPMZ
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Business Administration: Human Resource Management: Module MBA508.
Harare: ZOU
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of Human Resource Management. London: Prentice Hall
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Performance Management Presented at the Senior Civil Service
Performance Management Workshop in July 1997
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Management hold Key to Profit Making”. The Chartered
Secretary. Harare: CIS
Musingafi, M. 2005. An
Evaluation of the Acceptance and Implementation of the Zimbabwean
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Polytechnic: Unpublished Higher Diploma in Human Resources
Management Dissertation. Institute of Personnel Management of
Zimbabwe
Rogers, D. 1995. “Choosing performance
Management: A Holistic Approach”. CUPA Journal Summer,
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Maxwell Musingafi is the Regional Undergraduate
Programme Coordinator for the Midlands for the Faculty of Commerce
and Law at the Zimbabwe Open University, Gweru, Zimbabwe. He is
coordinating the delivery of distance education programmes of the
Faculty, which also includes offering lectureship, supervision and
assessment services to under/post graduate students in Human
Resources, Management, Industrial and Labour Relations courses. He
is the Chief Invigilator for the Midlands Region for the Institute
of Personnel Management of Zimbabwe (IPMZ) and the Institute of
Administration and Commerce (IAC). He is also a member of the
Institute of Marketing Management - South Africa (IMM), Institute
of Personnel Management of Zimbabwe, and a Member of the Budding
Writers Association of Zimbabwe. He holds a MBA of the Zimbabwe
Open University (2005), a Bachelor of Business Administration,
Honours Degree in Marketing (GSM, 2005), a Bachelor of Science,
Honours, Politics and Administration (UZ, 1991) and a Higher
Diploma in Human Resources Management (IPMZ: 2006). He is
currently studying towards his Ph.D Development and Management
through the North-West University: Vaal Triangle Campus: South
Africa. His professional consultancy experience includes designing
workshops and assisting with development in entrepreneurship and
small business planning/management for example, the Gweru Women
Aids Prevention Association (GWAPA). He can be contacted at mmusingafi@cooltoad.com,
mmusingafi@webmail.co.za
or on his mobile numbers 0026311442699,
00263912716785, or 0027769675712.
Short summary
The implementation of performance management systems in the
Zimbabwean Civil Service failed owing to internal and external
forces.
Keywords
and relevant phrases
Accountability, action, affirmative
action, authority, behaviour, belonging, black
empowerment, blackenisation,
brain drain, change
management, civil service, communication, commodity, contribution,
control, corruption, customer satisfaction, decision-making, efficiency, emotions,
empowerment, environment, equal
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policies, grading, group, history, human relation, human resources
management, implementation, infrastructure, job evaluation, labour
movement, leadership, management, management productivity,
management thought, measuring, merit rating, motivation, needs, nepotism, objectives,
organisational goals, people management, performance appraisal, performance-based
pay, performance management,
performance reforms, planning, politics, process productivity, professionalisation,
promotion, progression, qualification, reengineering, reform, resentment,
resistance, resources, responsibility, results, review, salaries,
strategy, structure, study, systems, teamwork, total quality management, training,
transparency, work, working conditions.
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